Crete
Basic features of Cretan History and Reports on the Character of the People,
in Support of the Study of the Epistle to Titus
Crete is an island which forms a southern boundary to the Aegean
Sea, and lies southeast of Greece. Crete is 156 miles long, seven
to thirty-five miles wide, and 3,189 square miles in area. It
is the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily,
Sardinia, Cyprus, and Corsica), and is on the spine of an undersea
mountain range thought to have formed at one time a land bridge
between the Greek Peloponnesian peninsula and southern Turkey.
In ancient times, Crete was the main stepping stone (by sea) between
Greece and Africa, and between Asia Minor and Africa. The Philistines
may have migrated to Palestine from Greece, having been located
on Crete for a time in the ancient past.
Crete is centrally located, but very little was known of its history
prior to the Greek period. It was not until the archaeological
expeditions of Sir Arthur Evans in the late 19th Century that
the facts of ancient Cretan history became known. Evans was an
out-of-work millionaire in England, so he took a position as the
curator of the Ashmolean Museum of Oxford University in Oxford,
England. He was an avid amateur archaeologist, but he was to achieve
a reputation which placed him among the most professional.
Evans was also a numismatist, and he heard about some very interesting
signet rings which had supposedly been left on the island of Crete
by some ancient Egyptians. Taking an extended vacation from the
museum, he sailed his personal yacht to Crete in 1894. He arrived
in the harbor at Knossos in that year, and he began an archaeological
dig at a place nearby called the Kephala site. On the very first
day of digging, he uncovered the top of a bronze age palace. He
knew that he had found something, but the property didn't belong
to him; so he covered up the hole and began negotiations with
the Greek government on Crete to purchase the site.
The place that Evans bought was the site of ancient Knossos; and
the palace he had found was that of King Minos, who had, up until
that time, been thought of only as a legend. Evans called the
civilization of King Minos the Minoan civilization. This civilization
flourished from early times up until about 1400 B.C., and its
discovery has been invaluable to the study of Greek and European
history and languages, especially those of the eastern Mediterranean
area.
The Minoan culture is distinguished by the originality and high
development of its art and architecture. In fact, the Minoan culture
is considered to be a forerunner of the Mycenaean civilization
of ancient Greece.
Many examples of pictographic script were found at the palace
site; and two basic forms were identified, labeled Minoan Linear
A and Linear B. The work of decipherment began in the 1930's,
but it was not until 1953 that the Linear B script puzzle was
solved, by two men named Ventris and Chadwick. They determined
that Linear B is an archaic form of early Greek. Linear A is still
under examination.
Sir Arthur Evans was recognized with many honors: he was elected
a Fellow of the Royal Society of Archaeologists; he was knighted
in 1911; he was named president of the Society of Antiquaries
from 1914 to 1919. He died at Oxford in 1941.
The Minoan civilization was destroyed in about 1400 B.C. with
the eruption of the Santorini volcano at the island of Thera,
about 70 miles north of Crete. It is thought that first a huge
tidal wave struck the island, destroying coastal cities and populations,
and that then volcanic ash came down, burying the whole island.
Arthur Evans uncovered the buildings 3300 years later.
Of course, the island began to be repopulated immediately as people
migrated from the mainland. In about 600 B.C., Dorian Greeks came
in force and settled the island by conquest. Their cousins were
the Spartan Greeks from the Peloponnesus and the Philistine Greeks
of Palestine. Spartan Greeks settled on the western side of the
island in cities like Lyttus. All of the Greeks on the island
were warlike, fierce fighters who prided themselves on their independence
and warrior qualities. Island people have a tendency to be independent,
and this trait was augmented by their heredity.
There were Cretan Jews at Jerusalem on the Day of Pentecost, Acts
2:11; and Paul stopped at least once at Crete, on his voyage to
Rome, Acts 27:7ff.
The following excerpts are from the works of Polybius, one of
the most famous and prolific Greek historians of Roman times.
The quotations are taken from his Histories, Volumes II, III,
and VI. The citations indicate volume and page numbers as [II,
319], etc.
ON THE CRETAN MILITARY [II, 319ff] - "The Cretans both by
land and sea are irresistible in ambuscades, forays, tricks played
on the enemy, night attacks, and all petty operations which require
fraud; but they are cowardly and down-hearted in the massed face-to-face
charge of an open battle".
ON CRETE'S INTERNAL STRIFE AND CIVIL WARS [II, 429ff], "The
city of Lyttus met with an irremediable disaster. Knossians and
Gortynians had subjected the whole island, except for Lyttus (about
225 B.C.). Since Lyttus would not surrender to them, they declared
war against it. At first, all the Cretans took part in the war
against the Lyttans; but jealousy sprang up from some trifling
cause, as is common with the Cretans. Several cities went over
to the aid of Lyttus.
"Meanwhile, the city of Gortyn was having civil war, in which
the elder citizens were taking the side of Knossos and the younger
were siding with Lyttus. The elder Gortynians, with the help of
Knossians and Aetolians, whom they had secretly let into the city
and the citadel, put to death the younger citizens, delivering
the city of Gortyn to Knossos.
"At about the same time, the Lyttians left with their whole
force for an expedition into enemy territory. But the Knossians
got word of their departure and used the opportunity to occupy
Lyttus, destroying the town and sending the populace into slavery.
The Lyttus military returned to a gutted city and were so distraught
that they didn't even enter the town, but sought refuge in the
city of Lappa, becoming in one day cityless aliens instead of
citizens.
"Thus, Lyttus, a colony of the Spartans, and allied to them
by blood, the most ancient city in Crete, and the breeding place
of her bravest men, was utterly and unexpectedly made away with."
ON THE GREED OF CRETANS [III,373ff] (In a comparison of the Spartan
and Cretan constitutions) -- "In all these respects the Cretan
practice is exactly the opposite (to the Spartan). Their laws
go as far as possible in letting them acquire land to the extent
of their power; and money is held in such high honor among them
that its acquisition is not only regarded as necessary, but as
most honorable.
"So much, in fact, do sordid love of gain and lust for wealth
prevail among them, that the Cretans are the only people in the
world in whose eyes no gain is disgraceful...owing to their ingrained
lust of wealth are involved in constant broils public and private,
and in murders and civil wars."
ON CRETAN TREACHERY AND CONNIVING (this is Polybius' rebuttal
to the statements of Ephorus, Xenophon, Plato and Callisthenes
that the constitutions of Sparta and Crete are similar) [III,
375ff] -- "Such are the points in which I consider these
two political systems to differ, and I will now give my reasons
for not regarding that of Crete as worthy of praise or imitation.
"In my opinion, there are two fundamental things in every
state, by virtue of which its principles and constitution are
either desirable or the reverse. I mean customs and laws. What
is desirable in these makes men's private lives righteous and
well-ordered and the general character of the state gentle and
just. What is to be avoided has the opposite effect.
"So, just as when we observe the laws and customs of a people
to be good, we have no hesitation in pronouncing that the citizens
and the state will consequently be good also. Thus, when we notice
that men are covetous in their private lives and that their public
actions are unjust, we are plainly justified in saying that their
laws, their particular customs, and the state as a whole, are
bad.
Now it would be impossible to find, except in some rare instances,
personal conduct more treacherous, or a public policy more unjust,
than in Crete. Holding then the Cretan constitution to be neither
similar to that of Sparta nor in any way deserving of praise and
imitation, I dismiss it from the comparison which I have proposed
to make."
ON THE TREACHERY OF SOME CITIZENS OF THE CITIES OF CYDONIA AND
APOLLONIA [VI, 31] -- "The people of Cydonia at this time
committed a shocking act of treachery universally condemned. For
although many such things have happened in Crete, what was done
then was thought to surpass all other instances of their habitual
ferocity.
"For while they were not only friends with the Appolonians,
but united with them in general in all the rights observed by
men, there being a sworn treaty to this effect deposited in the
temple of Zeus, they treacherously seized on the city, killing
the men, laying violent hands on all property, and dividing among
themselves and keeping the women and children, and the city with
its territory."
FROM CRETE VS. RHODES [VI, 285] -- "Antiphatas ... for, as
a fact, this young man was not at all Cretan in character but
had escaped the contagion of Cretan ill-breeding."
THE STORY OF THE CAPTURE OF ACHAEUS
(a true, and truly Cretan, episode)
First, some background Greek history -
Philip of Macedon had won recognition as a Greek by force of arms.
He announced his intention of leading a united Greek army against
Persia to overthrow it once and for all. He was elected general
at the city of Corinth in 335 B.C., but he was murdered shortly
thereafter, and the army and generalship passed to his son, Alexander.
Alexander crossed the Hellespont in 334 B.C. with an army of 35,000
Macedonians and Greeks. He visited Troy, dedicated his armor to
Athena, and placed a crown on the tomb of Achilles, whom he regarded
as his ancestor. His first engagement with the Persians was at
the river Granicus, east of Troy, which opened his way into Asia
Minor. The second main battle was at Issus, after which he overran
the whole east coast of the Mediterranean, conquering as far as
Egypt. His third great battle was at Guagamela in 331 B.C., which
brought the final downfall of the Persian empire. He went on to
conquer territory over into India, but died at the age of 32 of
a fever probably made worse by alcoholism.
Alexander had begun to think of world empire, but it was not to
be. His generals fought each other to be his successor; and they
finally divided the conquered territories among themselves. Ptolemy
began his dynasty in Egypt, which lasted until Cleopatra. The
Seleucid dynasty in Asia Minor, with the kings named Seleucus
or Antiochus, lasted until 65 B.C. when Syria became a Roman province.
The Antigonid rulers of mainland Greece and Macedonia also remained
independent until the Roman takeover.
For the next century and a half after Alexander, the history of
Asia Minor is that of the attempts by various kings to extend
their dominion over the Mediterranean area. There was continuous
fighting between Greeks, Egyptians, and Syrians, as first one
and then the other became ambitious for more territory.
In about 215 B.C., Antiochus III took an army to hunt down a man
named Achaeus, a member of the Syrian royal family, who had proclaimed
himself king in Asia Minor. Achaeus and his army were forced to
retreat into the city of Sardis, and Antiochus troops were camped
almost all the way around the city in siege.
Now - at this time, Bolis, a Cretan, was a high ranking official
in the court of Ptolemy, the Egyptian king. He was possessed of
superior intelligence, exceptional courage, and much military
experience. He was approached by Sosibius, the Egyptian "secretary
of state", and asked to work up a plan to save Achaeus from
the clutches of Antiochus. In about three days, Bolis told Sosibius
that he would take on the job; mainly because he had spent some
time in Sardis and knew the layout of the land and the city. And
he knew that Cambylus, another Cretan, and a friend of his, was
the commander of the Cretan mercenaries in Antiochus' army.
In fact, Cambylus and his force of Cretans had charge of one of
the outposts behind the citadel where Antiochus was not able to
build siege works. This portion of the surrounding forces' line
was occupied by Cambylus's troops.
Sosibius had almost given up the idea of rescuing Achaeus; but
now he thought that if anyone could do it, Bolis could. And Bolis
was so enthusiastic about the idea that the project really began
to move. Sosibius advanced the funds necessary for the project;
and he promised Bolis a large reward from Ptolemy himself, pointing
out also that King Achaeus would probably express his gratitude
with money.
Bolis set sail without delay carrying dispatches in code and credentials
to Nicomachus in Rhodes, a close friend of Achaeus, and to Melancomas
at Ephesus. These two men had previously acted as Achaeus' trusted
agents in foreign affairs. They were in agreement with Bolis'
plan and began to make arrangements to help him in the rescue
attempt. Bolis also sent word to Cambylus at Sardis that he had
a matter of great urgency to discuss with him in private.
Bolis, being a Cretan and naturally astute, had been weighing
every idea and testing the soundness of every plan. When Bolis
met with Cambylus, (according to Polybius), "They discussed
the matter from a thoroughly Cretan point of view. For they did
not take into consideration either the rescue of the man in danger
or their loyalty to those who had charged them with the task,
but only their personal security and advantage. Both of them,
then, Cretans as they were, soon arrived at the same decision,
which was to divide between them in equal shares the ten talents
advanced by Sosibius and then to reveal the project to Antiochus;
and undertake, if assisted by him, to deliver Achaeus into his
hands on receiving a sum of money in advance and the promise of
a reward upon delivery of Achaeus adequate in importance to the
enterprise."
So, Cambylus left to talk to Antiochus; and Bolis sent a messenger
to Achaeus with coded messages from Nicomachus and Melancomas
outlining the plan to the king. Should Achaeus agree to make the
attempt at escape, Bolis would go ahead with the rescue plan.
Antiochus, for his part, was surprised and delighted at the offer
from Cambylus. He was ready to promise anything to get Achaeus
in his hands; but he was equally wary of any Cretan plan. So he
demanded a detailed account of their project and how they were
going to carry it out. Cambylus was able to convince him, so Antiochus
urged him to put it into execution, and he advanced several talents
for expenses.
Bolis, meanwhile, communicated with Nicomachus and Melancomas,
who, believing that the attempt was being made in all good faith,
immediately drew up letters to Achaeus in a secret mercantile
code so that only Achaeus could read the messages. The letters
urged Achaeus to put his trust in Bolis and Cambylus.
Bolis' messenger gained access to the citadel in Sardis with the
aid of Cambylus, and he handed the letters to Achaeus. The messenger
had been completely briefed in the fake plan, and he was able
to give an accurate and detailed account of everything in answer
to Achaeus' numerous questions about Bolis and Sosibius, Nicomachus
and Melancomas, and especially Cambylus. The messenger was able
to support the cross-questioning with confidence and honesty because
he had no knowledge of the real agreement between Bolis and Cambylus.
Achaeus was convinced and agreed to the plan. He sent word back
to Rhodes to Nicomachus, to tell Bolis to proceed. Achaeus figured
that once he had escaped he could travel quickly back to Syria,
while Antiochus was still occupied in the siege of Sardis, and
create a great movement in his favor.
The rescue plan was as follows --Bolis and the messenger would
go into the citadel and lead Achaeus out. The messenger would
lead the way out because he knew the path and there was a new
moon, making it completely dark. Bolis would be last and stick
close to Achaeus. If Achaeus were to be alone, there would be
no problem. But they wanted to take him alive; and if he brought
some people with him, they didn't want to take any chances of
his escaping in the dark when he found out he was being kidnapped.
Cambylus took Bolis to talk personally with Antiochus, who again
promised a huge reward for Achaeus. That night, about two hours
before daybreak, Bolis went through the lines to the citadel and
met Achaeus. Here, let Polybius pick up the narrative --
"As, however, Achaeus was second to none in intelligence,
and had had considerable experience, he judged it best not to
repose entire confidence in Bolis. He announced that he would
first send out three or four of his friends, and after they had
made sure that everything was all right, he would himself get
ready to leave. Achaeus was indeed doing his best; but he did
not consider that, as the saying goes, he was trying to play the
Cretan with a Cretan. For there was no probable precaution of
this kind that Bolis had not minutely examined."
Achaeus dressed himself in rude clothing and put fairly good clothing
on some of his retainers. Then, in darkness, they went out on
the steep and difficult trail down from the citadel, the messenger
in front as planned, with Bolis bringing up the rear. Again, Polybius:
"Bolis found himself perplexed ... for although a Cretan
and ready to entertain every kind of suspicion regarding others,
he could not owing to the darkness make out which was Achaeus,
or even if he were present. But he noticed that at certain slippery
and dangerous places on the trail some of the men would take hold
of Achaeus and give him a hand down, as they were unable to put
aside their customary respect for him. So Bolis very soon determined
who was Achaeus."
Achaeus was taken in ambush by Bolis and his men, who kept Achaeus's
hands inside his garment to prevent suicide. He was taken bound
hand and foot to Antiochus, who summarily executed him. Bolis
and Cambylus received their rewards and went their way.
A final word from Polybius: "Thus did Achaeus perish, after
taking every reasonable precaution and defeated only by the perfidy
of those whom he had trusted, leaving two useful lessons to posterity,
firstly to trust no one too easily, and secondly not to be boastful
in the season of prosperity, but, being men, to be prepared for
any turn of fortune."
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